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(05-29-2009, 10:28 AM)saki Wrote: here is a file contaning some SMALL QUESTIONS - 30 WORDS... COMPILED FROM PREVIOUS YEARS' QUESTIONS...
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(05-29-2009, 09:36 AM)saki Wrote: DEFINITIONS - 3O WORDS
Adhyasa is the function of maya which includes avarna (concealment) and vikshepa (projection)
Moksha is liberation, if attained while living is jivanmukti, (shankara) if to be attained by god's grace only after death, is videhmukti (ramanujan) (Vedanta)
Videhamukti is final liberation when all the past karmas of life have been fructified, and occurs at death of the body
Ways to Moksha - Knowledge leads to liberation. The three ways to attain knowledge are: dhyana (listening to teacher), manan (self-study of scriptures) and nidhidhyasana (application of same in real life) (Ramanujan)
Four stages of liberation are shalokya (soul lives in lord's house), samipya (soul lives near god), sarupya (soul attain the form of god), and sayujya (soul submerges in god) (ramanujan)
Prapti is the highest form of bhakti, which is complete surrender to god
Division of Vedas into Samhita, Brahmana Aranyaka, Upnishads
Causation is either Satkaryavada or Asatkaryavada. Satkaryavada is cause resides in the effect, whereas in Asatkaryavada is cause is something new. Satkaryavada is divided into Parinamvada and Vivartavada. Parinamavada is the modification of cause into effect, whereas Vivartvada is appearance of that modification. Parinamavada is again divided into two parts Brahmanparinamavada and Prakritiparinamavada. Brahamapraninamvada is modificiation of Brahman (Vedanta) and Prakritiparinamvada is modification of prakriti (Sankhya)
Atma meaning soul, central to indian philosophy, characterized by four states, jagrit (waking), swapna (dreaming), sushupti (deep sleep) and turiya (transcendental)
jagrat - soul in waking stage, in interaction with outside world, with all its senses working including manas
Swapna - soul in sleep stage, with senses not in interaction with outside world, but manas still working
Sushupti - soul in deep sleep wherein neither senses nor manas working
Turiya - the highest inexplicably transcendental stage attained by intense meditation wherein the soul realizes its true nature
Advaita - relation between soul and brahman is that of identity and Vishistadvaita - relation between soul and brahman is that of whole and part, cause and effect and not identity.
Vivartavada - theory of causality maintained by adwaita according to which the effect is just an illusion, and not really existent
Satta - the planes of existence recognized by shankara being pratibhashik (dream), vyavaharik (empirical) and parmarthik (transcendental). Each is real as long as one is in it, but irreal when one moves to higher plane.
Vyavaharik Satta is the dream reality, the empirical world which becomes illusiory as one transcends it and attains moksha
Parmarthik Satta is the plane of absolute reality wherein empircal world is revealed as creation of maya and ignorance
Pratibhashik Satta is the plane of dream reality which becomes sublates as one wakes up.
Liberation - true knowledge about the relationship between soul and Brahman
Maya - The cosmic illusion, dependent upon brahman, functioning as avarna (concealment of reality) and vikshepa (projection of illusion)
Para Vidya - holisitc knowledge about reality and illusion, brahman and maya
Apara Vidya - knowledge derived from senses, non-holisitic and prejudicial under the effect of maya
Triratna - samyag darshan, samyag gyan, samyag charitra (Jainisim)
Samyag Gyan is partial and phenomenal knowledge acquired through mati, shruti, naya, avadhi, manahprayaya. it is not complete and absolute
Samyag Darshan is complete and perfect of knowledge of things in relation to other things in the world.
Samyag Charitra is the right conduct that makes samyag darshan possible
Dharma is the dynamic principle of motion and adharma is the one blocking it. (Jainism)
Tatva - the seven categories admitted by jaina being jiva, ajiva, ashrava (inflow of karmic particles), bandha (bondage), samvara (stoppage), nirjara (removal) and moksha (liberation)
Dravya - the substratum of qualities (guna), modes (paryaya) and motion (dharma). it is either astikaya aur nastikaya.(Jainism)
Dravya - one of the categories approved by visheshika, dravya is the substratum of all gunas, actions etc. 9 kinds of Dravyas are prithvi, akash, tejas, ap, vayu, kala, dik, atman, manas. (Vaisheshika)
Nitya Dravya are eternal padarthas. parmanu of subtle elements plus space, time and soul
Anitya Dravya are the gross products of the prithvi, jal, akash, tej, ap, vayu
Yagya - a way to show gratitude towards nature, its two kinds being shreyas (performed for benefit) and preyas (performed as thanksgiving)
Rna - means debt that human being owes and have to pay back. pitri-rina (debt to parents), dev-rina (to gods) & acharya-rina (to teachers) are its 3 forms
Karma - governed by rta, it refers to actions which bears fruit. it may be prarbadha (already fructified), sanchit (awaiting fruition), sanchayiman (presently bearing fruit)
Lingapramarsha is instantiation of vyapti and referred for the third time in nyaya syllogism
Vyaptigrehoprayas is the method to arrive at vyapti which can be through anvaya, vyatriki, sahcharya, bhuyodarshan and tarka.
Adrishta is the universal principal taking account of individual's karma.
Chit in sankhya is the construct of manas, buddhi and ahankara reflecting purusha wrongly. Kaivalya is the knowledge of this wrong identification of purusha with prakriti.
Chita Vriti - With the wrong identification with things, purusha assumes the ‘form’ of that thing. This form is called vriti or modification. 5 kinds of Vritis are parmana, viparyaya, vikalpa, nidra and smriti.
Yoga – the cessation of the modifications of chitta through meditation is yoga.
Buddhist Ashtang Marg - ODSALEMN - right observance, duty, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, meditation
MAN IS THE COMPOSITE OF 5 SKANDHAS VIGYAN, VEDNA, SANGYA, SANSKARA AND RUPA
3 Pitaks - SUTTA, VINAY AND ABHIDHAMMA
Boddhisatva is the one who has taken a vow to become buddha
Vidhi, nishedha and arthvada – the classification of mahavakyas according to which Vidhi are the mantras used in yajna, nishedha are the mantras that are prohibited to use in a particular yajna, and arthvada is the explanation of their meanings.
Shabanityavada - mimansaks thoery of meaning according to which words are eternal and are a divine creation
Anvitabhidanvada – Prabhakar’s theory of meaning by which words are meaningful only in relation to other words in a sentence.
Abhihitavyayavada – Kumaril’s theory of meaning by which words are independently meaningful and it is the logical connection between the words that suggests the meaning of the sentence.
Sambandha - the category of relation admitted by vaisheshika. it is of 3 kinds samyoga (conjunction), samvaya (inherence) and shrinkhala (chain)
Karnata is theory of causation in indian philosphy emphasizing on whether or not cause exists in its effects. its two kinds are satkaryavada and asatkaryavad
Parmanyavada – Theories of validity of knowledge as to whether knowledge is itself valid or requires external sources to validate it. Two kinds of validity are internal (svatah-parmanyavada) and external (pratah-parmanyavada)
Triputi-Samwit – Theory of provability of self maintained by prabhakar according to which in every act of knowledge, there is simultaneous revelation of knower (self), known (object) and the knowledge itself.
Jnatatavada – Theory of provability of self maintained by Kumaril which maintains that consciousness is inferred through the cognizedness of the object and is not self-luminous.
Chit is the self illuminating consciousness and does not require any other source for its light and differnt from chitta of samkhya and yoha (vedanta)
Achit is the matter or the non-conscious aspect of Brahman.
Being is the unchanging reality while becoming is the process or state by which one becomes a being
Prama is right apprehension of objects (yatharthanubhava prama), cognizing object as it is.
Aprama is invalid knowledge, the cognition of objects falsely. Its four kinds are smriti (memory), sanshay (doubt), viparyaya (error) and tarka (hypothetical reasoning)
Pramana refers to the valid source of means of acquiring knowledge. The 6 pramans are pratyaksha, anumana, upmana, shabd, abhav and anuaplabdhi.
Rta - The basic principle, eternal moral order of the universe, operating in its every sphere be it nature, human life, or morality.
Yagya - a way to show gratitude towards nature, its two kinds being shreyas (performed for benefit) and preyas (performed as thanksgiving)
akhyati – Prabhakar’s theory of error according to which error is due to non-apprehension of the distinction between two cognitions and their objects. The objects are presented only partially, but are wrongly taken as one.
viparitkhayati – kumaril’s theory of error according to which error is due to misapprehension of the synthesis of two cognitions
Anyathakhyati – Nyaya Theory of Error states error as the wrong apprehension of the object which exists elsewhere (anyatha) and which is retrieved from the memory through extraordinary perception (jnana lakshana partakshya)
Anirvachniyakhyati – According to Advait Vedanta error is indescribable (anirvachniya). It is neither real, nor unreal as everything is real as long as it works, but unreal when one goes on a higher plane of existence (parmarthik satta).
Anekantavada – According to Jainism reality is manifold (anekanta) and can be apprehended from different viewpoints (nayas). There is no absolute reality and no particular viewpoint absolutely true or false, or both.
Syadvada – The logical representation of anekantavada which says that no particular viewpoint about reality is true, or false, or both or neither. Every viewpoint is a Perhaps (syat) and is a combination of both true or false.
Nayavada – Jain’s epistemological theory of apprehension of reality from 7 different viewpoints (nayas). Reality is not absolute, but relative. These viewpoints are naigam, sangraha, vyavahar, rjustutra, shabd, samabhirudh, and evambhut.
Mokhsa – when all the karmic particles are removed from the soul (nirjara) and further inflow of the same is stopped (samvara), soul gets moksha. This is achieved by practicing tri-ratna - samyag gyan, samyak darshan and samyak charitra.
Pratyaksha (Nyaya) – According to Gautam, pratyaksha is indriyaartha sannikarsh utpann gyan. Ie. Knowledge derived through Sense-object contact. gangEsha says “sakshat karyatvam lakshanam pratyaksha†ie. Direct contact, having 3 modes – savikalpak, nirvikalpak and pratibhigyan, and 2 kinds – laukika and alaukika.
Pratyakha (Buddhism) –Perception is the bare awareness without any determination and imagination (kalpana). It is only nirvikalpak and savikalpaka of nyaya is rejected by Buddhist as it includes memory.
Upamaana – according to nyaya, upmana is sanjna-sanjni sambandha, i.e. knowledge of the similarity between the object which is known and which is unknown. Its 4 stages are Atideshvakya (information), sadrishyati (perception), vakyarthsmriti (recollection), upmiti (conclusion of comparison)
Aprithiksiddhi – Metaphysical theory of Ramanuja according to which there is an inseparable relation of cause and effect between Brahman and world. indivisible Brahman can manifest itself in various forms of this universe.
Parinamvada - The theory of creation according to which effect is the real modification of the cause. Its two forms are Braham Parinamvada - modification of Brahman into world (Advaita), and Prakriti Parinamvada - modification of Prakriti (Sankhya).
Sakshi (Dvaita) -
Panchshila – the five practices of right conduct in Jainism which are ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) brahamcharya (celibacy), aparigraha (non-attachment).
Eudaimonia – Aristotle’s ethical theory that aims at the achievement of a good life. Satisfaction of objective conditions of happiness is more important than pursuing the subjective experience of pleasure.
Ethical Realism – there are objective moral values and ethical statements are factual claims which can be true or false, but which does not depend upon our beliefs and attitudes. Its two forms are intuitionism and naturalism.
Intuitionism – meta-ethical theory which holds that objective moral values are intuitively known, but can not be defined like the property of goodness which is indefinable (Moore).
Utilitarianism – An ethical theory which states the worth of an action in terms of its utility or happiness. Its 2 forms are gross (subject’s happiness only), and refined (greatest happiness of the greatest number).
Kant’s moral theory – the reverence to categorical imperative, i.e. commands appylying to us unconditionally owing to our autonomous rationality.
Truth functions – a proposition having a definite truth value which is dependent upon the truth values of its constituents. E.g a conjunction is true, when both elements are true, etc.
Feminism – The philosophical standpoint which considers society and knowledge as dominated by male and endeavors to the abolition of the male domination in various spheres like art, literature, politics etc.
Categorical syllogism – An argument consisting of 2 premises and one conclusion having three terms, viz minor, major and middle, in which middle occurs twice in the premises, but never in the conclusion.
Quantification – its an operation to bind the variables in a propositional function to generate general propositions. Its 2 forms are universal and existential quantification.
Universal and Existential Quantification – To quantify variables so that
Decision procedures - A method for solving a decision problem (requiring only yes or no as answer) given in the form of an algorithm is called a decision procedure for that problem
Axiomatic system – it is a kind of formal system having a set of fundamental axioms from which further rules can be derived as theorems of that system. Its two requirements are completeness and consistency.
Argument form – general form of the argument whose elements serve as variables which can be substituted as per the problem to yield a proper argument.
Deterrent theory of punishment – Aim of punishment should be prevention against the repetition of crime. its done by generating fear, which creates hatred for the crime, and which consequently leads to its deterrence.
Reformative theory of punishment – aim of punishment should be reformation of the criminal by educating him. its based on the biblical maxim of hate the sin, not the sinner.
Retributive theory of punishment – aim of punishment is to deliver negative rewards to the criminal for crime done in order to maintain the dignity of law.
Correspondence theory of truth – a statement is true if it corresponds with actual state of affairs in the world.
Coherence theory of truth - a statement is true if it coheres with other propositions of the system already established as true.
Pragmatic theory of truth – a statement is true if it works, or the performance of it leads to useful activity.
Apurva - apurva is the link between act and its fruit. It is the causal potency (shakti) in the act which leads to its fructification [mimansa]
Dharma is the command or injunction which impels men to action. It is supra-sensible and consists in the commands of veda. [mimansa]
Karmas – Actions that men do. These are classified as obligatory (nitya and naimittika), optional (kamya) and prohibited (pratisiddha) [mimansa]
Apvarga – Liberation in mimansa achieved by abstention from optional (kamya) and prohibited (pratisiddha) karmas. Kumaril believes in gyan-karma-samuchhyavada – the harmonious combination of knowledge and action as a means to liberation.
Qualities - The properties or features of things, whether they are intrinsic or extrinsic to the thing itself.
Punishment - Deliberate infliction of harm as a moral sanction against offenders. Punishment may be understood, designed, and applied according to any of the theories which are retributive, reformative and deterrent.
completeness - A feature of formal systems whose axioms or rules of inference are adequate for the demonstration of every true proposition or for the justification of every valid argument. Thus, the addition of any unprovable formula to a complete system necessarily results in a contradiction. The propositional calculus is complete in this sense, but (as Gödel showed) higher-order versions of quantification theory are not.
consistency - Feature of any formal system from whose axioms no direct contradiction follows. The customary proof of consistency is to show that there is at least one interpretation of the system upon which all of its axioms are true.
existential import
The distinguishing feature of propositions that assert the existence of something. In traditional interpretations of categorical logic, all propositions are taken to have existential import, but on a modern interpretation, only the particular propositions, (I and O) have existential import.
naturalistic fallacy
According to G. E. Moore, the mistake of identifying moral good with any natural property. Moore argued that since any such identification gives rise to an open question, it can never be correct. This constitutes a significant reason for concluding that fact and value remain irreducibly distinct.
necessary / contingent
Distinction between kinds of truth. Necessary truth is a feature of any statement that it would be contradictory to deny. (Contradictions themselves are necessarily false.) Contingent truths (or falsehoods) happen to be true (or false), but might have been otherwise
necessary / sufficient - Distinction between logical or causal conditions. In causal relations, a necessary condition for the occurence of an event is a state of affairs without which the event cannot happen, while a sufficient condition is a state of affairs that guarantees that it will happen. Thus, for example: the presence of oxygen is a necessary condition for combustion, and the flow of electrical current is a sufficient condition for the induction of a magnetic field.
intuitionism
Reliance on unmediated awareness as a criterion of truth. In logic and mathematics, intuitionism denies the independent reality of mathematical objects and the principle of excluded middle. In moral philosophy, intuitionism is the metaethical theory that moral judgments are made by reference to a direct, non-inferential awareness of moral value. Ethical intuitionists usually hold that we recognize our duties in the specific features of particular moral decisions
utilitarianism
Normative theory that human conduct is right or wrong because of its tendency to produce favorable or unfavorable consequences for the people who are affected by it. The hedonistic utilitarianism of Bentham, Mill, and Sidgwick maintains that all moral judgments can be derived from the greatest happiness principle. The ideal utilitarianism espoused by G. E. Moore, on the other hand, regarded aesthetic enjoyment and friendship as the highest ethical values. Contemporary utilitarians differ about whether the theory should be applied primarily to acts or rules.
Reason for believing in parmanu by vaisheshika - By admitting parmanu as the eternal and indivisible parts that gives rise to world by their different combinations, vaisheshikas saved their Asatkaryavada, which is non-existence of effect in cause.
Reason for having samanya as independent category by Nyayas – To maintain its realism, by which not only particulars, but universals also have objective reality. As universal can’t exist in another universal, separate category is needed.
Quantification rules – The 4 rules that dictate the conditions under which it is permissible to delete or add a quantifier: Universal Instantiation, Universal Generalization (for universal quantifiers), Existential Instantiation and Existential Generalization (for existential quantifiers)
Universal Quantification and Existential Quantification – UQ is attempt to formalize the notion that something is true for everything, while EQ is predication of a property to at least one member of the class.
Duty and obligation - Obligation arises out the voluntary acts,
whereas duty is something that we owe apart from any voluntary undertaking.
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(05-29-2009, 09:36 AM)saki Wrote: DEFINITIONS - 3O WORDS
Adhyasa is the function of maya which includes avarna (concealment) and vikshepa (projection)
Moksha is liberation, if attained while living is jivanmukti, (shankara) if to be attained by god's grace only after death, is videhmukti (ramanujan) (Vedanta)
Videhamukti is final liberation when all the past karmas of life have been fructified, and occurs at death of the body
Ways to Moksha - Knowledge leads to liberation. The three ways to attain knowledge are: dhyana (listening to teacher), manan (self-study of scriptures) and nidhidhyasana (application of same in real life) (Ramanujan)
Four stages of liberation are shalokya (soul lives in lord's house), samipya (soul lives near god), sarupya (soul attain the form of god), and sayujya (soul submerges in god) (ramanujan)
Prapti is the highest form of bhakti, which is complete surrender to god
Division of Vedas into Samhita, Brahmana Aranyaka, Upnishads
Causation is either Satkaryavada or Asatkaryavada. Satkaryavada is cause resides in the effect, whereas in Asatkaryavada is cause is something new. Satkaryavada is divided into Parinamvada and Vivartavada. Parinamavada is the modification of cause into effect, whereas Vivartvada is appearance of that modification. Parinamavada is again divided into two parts Brahmanparinamavada and Prakritiparinamavada. Brahamapraninamvada is modificiation of Brahman (Vedanta) and Prakritiparinamvada is modification of prakriti (Sankhya)
Atma meaning soul, central to indian philosophy, characterized by four states, jagrit (waking), swapna (dreaming), sushupti (deep sleep) and turiya (transcendental)
jagrat - soul in waking stage, in interaction with outside world, with all its senses working including manas
Swapna - soul in sleep stage, with senses not in interaction with outside world, but manas still working
Sushupti - soul in deep sleep wherein neither senses nor manas working
Turiya - the highest inexplicably transcendental stage attained by intense meditation wherein the soul realizes its true nature
Advaita - relation between soul and brahman is that of identity and Vishistadvaita - relation between soul and brahman is that of whole and part, cause and effect and not identity.
Vivartavada - theory of causality maintained by adwaita according to which the effect is just an illusion, and not really existent
Satta - the planes of existence recognized by shankara being pratibhashik (dream), vyavaharik (empirical) and parmarthik (transcendental). Each is real as long as one is in it, but irreal when one moves to higher plane.
Vyavaharik Satta is the dream reality, the empirical world which becomes illusiory as one transcends it and attains moksha
Parmarthik Satta is the plane of absolute reality wherein empircal world is revealed as creation of maya and ignorance
Pratibhashik Satta is the plane of dream reality which becomes sublates as one wakes up.
Liberation - true knowledge about the relationship between soul and Brahman
Maya - The cosmic illusion, dependent upon brahman, functioning as avarna (concealment of reality) and vikshepa (projection of illusion)
Para Vidya - holisitc knowledge about reality and illusion, brahman and maya
Apara Vidya - knowledge derived from senses, non-holisitic and prejudicial under the effect of maya
Triratna - samyag darshan, samyag gyan, samyag charitra (Jainisim)
Samyag Gyan is partial and phenomenal knowledge acquired through mati, shruti, naya, avadhi, manahprayaya. it is not complete and absolute
Samyag Darshan is complete and perfect of knowledge of things in relation to other things in the world.
Samyag Charitra is the right conduct that makes samyag darshan possible
Dharma is the dynamic principle of motion and adharma is the one blocking it. (Jainism)
Tatva - the seven categories admitted by jaina being jiva, ajiva, ashrava (inflow of karmic particles), bandha (bondage), samvara (stoppage), nirjara (removal) and moksha (liberation)
Dravya - the substratum of qualities (guna), modes (paryaya) and motion (dharma). it is either astikaya aur nastikaya.(Jainism)
Dravya - one of the categories approved by visheshika, dravya is the substratum of all gunas, actions etc. 9 kinds of Dravyas are prithvi, akash, tejas, ap, vayu, kala, dik, atman, manas. (Vaisheshika)
Nitya Dravya are eternal padarthas. parmanu of subtle elements plus space, time and soul
Anitya Dravya are the gross products of the prithvi, jal, akash, tej, ap, vayu
Yagya - a way to show gratitude towards nature, its two kinds being shreyas (performed for benefit) and preyas (performed as thanksgiving)
Rna - means debt that human being owes and have to pay back. pitri-rina (debt to parents), dev-rina (to gods) & acharya-rina (to teachers) are its 3 forms
Karma - governed by rta, it refers to actions which bears fruit. it may be prarbadha (already fructified), sanchit (awaiting fruition), sanchayiman (presently bearing fruit)
Lingapramarsha is instantiation of vyapti and referred for the third time in nyaya syllogism
Vyaptigrehoprayas is the method to arrive at vyapti which can be through anvaya, vyatriki, sahcharya, bhuyodarshan and tarka.
Adrishta is the universal principal taking account of individual's karma.
Chit in sankhya is the construct of manas, buddhi and ahankara reflecting purusha wrongly. Kaivalya is the knowledge of this wrong identification of purusha with prakriti.
Chita Vriti - With the wrong identification with things, purusha assumes the ‘form’ of that thing. This form is called vriti or modification. 5 kinds of Vritis are parmana, viparyaya, vikalpa, nidra and smriti.
Yoga – the cessation of the modifications of chitta through meditation is yoga.
Buddhist Ashtang Marg - ODSALEMN - right observance, duty, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, meditation
MAN IS THE COMPOSITE OF 5 SKANDHAS VIGYAN, VEDNA, SANGYA, SANSKARA AND RUPA
3 Pitaks - SUTTA, VINAY AND ABHIDHAMMA
Boddhisatva is the one who has taken a vow to become buddha
Vidhi, nishedha and arthvada – the classification of mahavakyas according to which Vidhi are the mantras used in yajna, nishedha are the mantras that are prohibited to use in a particular yajna, and arthvada is the explanation of their meanings.
Shabanityavada - mimansaks thoery of meaning according to which words are eternal and are a divine creation
Anvitabhidanvada – Prabhakar’s theory of meaning by which words are meaningful only in relation to other words in a sentence.
Abhihitavyayavada – Kumaril’s theory of meaning by which words are independently meaningful and it is the logical connection between the words that suggests the meaning of the sentence.
Sambandha - the category of relation admitted by vaisheshika. it is of 3 kinds samyoga (conjunction), samvaya (inherence) and shrinkhala (chain)
Karnata is theory of causation in indian philosphy emphasizing on whether or not cause exists in its effects. its two kinds are satkaryavada and asatkaryavad
Parmanyavada – Theories of validity of knowledge as to whether knowledge is itself valid or requires external sources to validate it. Two kinds of validity are internal (svatah-parmanyavada) and external (pratah-parmanyavada)
Triputi-Samwit – Theory of provability of self maintained by prabhakar according to which in every act of knowledge, there is simultaneous revelation of knower (self), known (object) and the knowledge itself.
Jnatatavada – Theory of provability of self maintained by Kumaril which maintains that consciousness is inferred through the cognizedness of the object and is not self-luminous.
Chit is the self illuminating consciousness and does not require any other source for its light and differnt from chitta of samkhya and yoha (vedanta)
Achit is the matter or the non-conscious aspect of Brahman.
Being is the unchanging reality while becoming is the process or state by which one becomes a being
Prama is right apprehension of objects (yatharthanubhava prama), cognizing object as it is.
Aprama is invalid knowledge, the cognition of objects falsely. Its four kinds are smriti (memory), sanshay (doubt), viparyaya (error) and tarka (hypothetical reasoning)
Pramana refers to the valid source of means of acquiring knowledge. The 6 pramans are pratyaksha, anumana, upmana, shabd, abhav and anuaplabdhi.
Rta - The basic principle, eternal moral order of the universe, operating in its every sphere be it nature, human life, or morality.
Yagya - a way to show gratitude towards nature, its two kinds being shreyas (performed for benefit) and preyas (performed as thanksgiving)
akhyati – Prabhakar’s theory of error according to which error is due to non-apprehension of the distinction between two cognitions and their objects. The objects are presented only partially, but are wrongly taken as one.
viparitkhayati – kumaril’s theory of error according to which error is due to misapprehension of the synthesis of two cognitions
Anyathakhyati – Nyaya Theory of Error states error as the wrong apprehension of the object which exists elsewhere (anyatha) and which is retrieved from the memory through extraordinary perception (jnana lakshana partakshya)
Anirvachniyakhyati – According to Advait Vedanta error is indescribable (anirvachniya). It is neither real, nor unreal as everything is real as long as it works, but unreal when one goes on a higher plane of existence (parmarthik satta).
Anekantavada – According to Jainism reality is manifold (anekanta) and can be apprehended from different viewpoints (nayas). There is no absolute reality and no particular viewpoint absolutely true or false, or both.
Syadvada – The logical representation of anekantavada which says that no particular viewpoint about reality is true, or false, or both or neither. Every viewpoint is a Perhaps (syat) and is a combination of both true or false.
Nayavada – Jain’s epistemological theory of apprehension of reality from 7 different viewpoints (nayas). Reality is not absolute, but relative. These viewpoints are naigam, sangraha, vyavahar, rjustutra, shabd, samabhirudh, and evambhut.
Mokhsa – when all the karmic particles are removed from the soul (nirjara) and further inflow of the same is stopped (samvara), soul gets moksha. This is achieved by practicing tri-ratna - samyag gyan, samyak darshan and samyak charitra.
Pratyaksha (Nyaya) – According to Gautam, pratyaksha is indriyaartha sannikarsh utpann gyan. Ie. Knowledge derived through Sense-object contact. gangEsha says “sakshat karyatvam lakshanam pratyaksha†ie. Direct contact, having 3 modes – savikalpak, nirvikalpak and pratibhigyan, and 2 kinds – laukika and alaukika.
Pratyakha (Buddhism) –Perception is the bare awareness without any determination and imagination (kalpana). It is only nirvikalpak and savikalpaka of nyaya is rejected by Buddhist as it includes memory.
Upamaana – according to nyaya, upmana is sanjna-sanjni sambandha, i.e. knowledge of the similarity between the object which is known and which is unknown. Its 4 stages are Atideshvakya (information), sadrishyati (perception), vakyarthsmriti (recollection), upmiti (conclusion of comparison)
Aprithiksiddhi – Metaphysical theory of Ramanuja according to which there is an inseparable relation of cause and effect between Brahman and world. indivisible Brahman can manifest itself in various forms of this universe.
Parinamvada - The theory of creation according to which effect is the real modification of the cause. Its two forms are Braham Parinamvada - modification of Brahman into world (Advaita), and Prakriti Parinamvada - modification of Prakriti (Sankhya).
Sakshi (Dvaita) -
Panchshila – the five practices of right conduct in Jainism which are ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) brahamcharya (celibacy), aparigraha (non-attachment).
Eudaimonia – Aristotle’s ethical theory that aims at the achievement of a good life. Satisfaction of objective conditions of happiness is more important than pursuing the subjective experience of pleasure.
Ethical Realism – there are objective moral values and ethical statements are factual claims which can be true or false, but which does not depend upon our beliefs and attitudes. Its two forms are intuitionism and naturalism.
Intuitionism – meta-ethical theory which holds that objective moral values are intuitively known, but can not be defined like the property of goodness which is indefinable (Moore).
Utilitarianism – An ethical theory which states the worth of an action in terms of its utility or happiness. Its 2 forms are gross (subject’s happiness only), and refined (greatest happiness of the greatest number).
Kant’s moral theory – the reverence to categorical imperative, i.e. commands appylying to us unconditionally owing to our autonomous rationality.
Truth functions – a proposition having a definite truth value which is dependent upon the truth values of its constituents. E.g a conjunction is true, when both elements are true, etc.
Feminism – The philosophical standpoint which considers society and knowledge as dominated by male and endeavors to the abolition of the male domination in various spheres like art, literature, politics etc.
Categorical syllogism – An argument consisting of 2 premises and one conclusion having three terms, viz minor, major and middle, in which middle occurs twice in the premises, but never in the conclusion.
Quantification – its an operation to bind the variables in a propositional function to generate general propositions. Its 2 forms are universal and existential quantification.
Universal and Existential Quantification – To quantify variables so that
Decision procedures - A method for solving a decision problem (requiring only yes or no as answer) given in the form of an algorithm is called a decision procedure for that problem
Axiomatic system – it is a kind of formal system having a set of fundamental axioms from which further rules can be derived as theorems of that system. Its two requirements are completeness and consistency.
Argument form – general form of the argument whose elements serve as variables which can be substituted as per the problem to yield a proper argument.
Deterrent theory of punishment – Aim of punishment should be prevention against the repetition of crime. its done by generating fear, which creates hatred for the crime, and which consequently leads to its deterrence.
Reformative theory of punishment – aim of punishment should be reformation of the criminal by educating him. its based on the biblical maxim of hate the sin, not the sinner.
Retributive theory of punishment – aim of punishment is to deliver negative rewards to the criminal for crime done in order to maintain the dignity of law.
Correspondence theory of truth – a statement is true if it corresponds with actual state of affairs in the world.
Coherence theory of truth - a statement is true if it coheres with other propositions of the system already established as true.
Pragmatic theory of truth – a statement is true if it works, or the performance of it leads to useful activity.
Apurva - apurva is the link between act and its fruit. It is the causal potency (shakti) in the act which leads to its fructification [mimansa]
Dharma is the command or injunction which impels men to action. It is supra-sensible and consists in the commands of veda. [mimansa]
Karmas – Actions that men do. These are classified as obligatory (nitya and naimittika), optional (kamya) and prohibited (pratisiddha) [mimansa]
Apvarga – Liberation in mimansa achieved by abstention from optional (kamya) and prohibited (pratisiddha) karmas. Kumaril believes in gyan-karma-samuchhyavada – the harmonious combination of knowledge and action as a means to liberation.
Qualities - The properties or features of things, whether they are intrinsic or extrinsic to the thing itself.
Punishment - Deliberate infliction of harm as a moral sanction against offenders. Punishment may be understood, designed, and applied according to any of the theories which are retributive, reformative and deterrent.
completeness - A feature of formal systems whose axioms or rules of inference are adequate for the demonstration of every true proposition or for the justification of every valid argument. Thus, the addition of any unprovable formula to a complete system necessarily results in a contradiction. The propositional calculus is complete in this sense, but (as Gödel showed) higher-order versions of quantification theory are not.
consistency - Feature of any formal system from whose axioms no direct contradiction follows. The customary proof of consistency is to show that there is at least one interpretation of the system upon which all of its axioms are true.
existential import
The distinguishing feature of propositions that assert the existence of something. In traditional interpretations of categorical logic, all propositions are taken to have existential import, but on a modern interpretation, only the particular propositions, (I and O) have existential import.
naturalistic fallacy
According to G. E. Moore, the mistake of identifying moral good with any natural property. Moore argued that since any such identification gives rise to an open question, it can never be correct. This constitutes a significant reason for concluding that fact and value remain irreducibly distinct.
necessary / contingent
Distinction between kinds of truth. Necessary truth is a feature of any statement that it would be contradictory to deny. (Contradictions themselves are necessarily false.) Contingent truths (or falsehoods) happen to be true (or false), but might have been otherwise
necessary / sufficient - Distinction between logical or causal conditions. In causal relations, a necessary condition for the occurence of an event is a state of affairs without which the event cannot happen, while a sufficient condition is a state of affairs that guarantees that it will happen. Thus, for example: the presence of oxygen is a necessary condition for combustion, and the flow of electrical current is a sufficient condition for the induction of a magnetic field.
intuitionism
Reliance on unmediated awareness as a criterion of truth. In logic and mathematics, intuitionism denies the independent reality of mathematical objects and the principle of excluded middle. In moral philosophy, intuitionism is the metaethical theory that moral judgments are made by reference to a direct, non-inferential awareness of moral value. Ethical intuitionists usually hold that we recognize our duties in the specific features of particular moral decisions
utilitarianism
Normative theory that human conduct is right or wrong because of its tendency to produce favorable or unfavorable consequences for the people who are affected by it. The hedonistic utilitarianism of Bentham, Mill, and Sidgwick maintains that all moral judgments can be derived from the greatest happiness principle. The ideal utilitarianism espoused by G. E. Moore, on the other hand, regarded aesthetic enjoyment and friendship as the highest ethical values. Contemporary utilitarians differ about whether the theory should be applied primarily to acts or rules.
Reason for believing in parmanu by vaisheshika - By admitting parmanu as the eternal and indivisible parts that gives rise to world by their different combinations, vaisheshikas saved their Asatkaryavada, which is non-existence of effect in cause.
Reason for having samanya as independent category by Nyayas – To maintain its realism, by which not only particulars, but universals also have objective reality. As universal can’t exist in another universal, separate category is needed.
Quantification rules – The 4 rules that dictate the conditions under which it is permissible to delete or add a quantifier: Universal Instantiation, Universal Generalization (for universal quantifiers), Existential Instantiation and Existential Generalization (for existential quantifiers)
Universal Quantification and Existential Quantification – UQ is attempt to formalize the notion that something is true for everything, while EQ is predication of a property to at least one member of the class.
Duty and obligation - Obligation arises out the voluntary acts,
whereas duty is something that we owe apart from any voluntary undertaking.
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Hi saki,
I want to write philosophy net exam in December 2015. So please help me. I want notes on appearance and reality, the problem of personal identity, the problem of induction, belief and scepticism, vyapti,brahmaviharas,..
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(05-24-2009, 08:27 PM)saki Wrote: God Bless you!!!!!
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